Bacillus subtilis oxalate decarboxylase (OxDC) catalyzes the conversion of oxalate into CO2 and formate. The enzyme is composed of two cupin domains, each of which contains a Mn(II) ion. Although there is general agreement that Mn(II) in the N-terminal domain mediates OxDC-catalyzed decarboxylation, legitimate questions have been raised concerning the function (if any) of the Mn(II) bound in the C-terminal cupin domain. We have investigated this problem using a series of OxDC mutants in which Mn(II) binding is perturbed by mutagenesis of Glu-101 and Glu-280, which coordinate the metal in the N-terminal and C-terminal domains, respectively. We now demonstrate that decarboxylase activity and total manganese content are sensitive to modifications in either metal-binding glutamate residue. These findings, in combination with EPR measurements, raise the possibility that the C-terminal Mn(II) center can catalyze the decarboxylation reaction. Further support for this conclusion has been provided from a combination of in vivo and in vitro strategies for preparing wild-type OxDC in which Mn(II) is incorporated to a variety of extents. Kinetic characterization of these variants shows that OxDC activity is linearly correlated with manganese content, as might be expected if both sites can catalyze the breakdown of oxalate into formate and CO2. These studies also represent the first unequivocal demonstration that OxDC activity is uniquely mediated by manganese.

Despite more than five decades of extensive studies of thiamin diphosphate (ThDP) enzymes, there remain many uncertainties as to how these enzymes achieve their rate enhancements. Here, we present a clear picture of catalysis for the simple nonoxidative decarboxylase, oxalyl-coenzyme A (CoA) decarboxylase, based on crystallographic snapshots along the catalytic cycled and kinetic data on active site mutants. First, we provide crystallographic evidence that, upon binding of oxalyl-CoA, the C-terminal 13 residues fold over the substrate, aligning the substrate alpha-carbon for attack by the ThDP-C2 atom. The second structure presented shows a covalent reaction intermediate after decarboxylation, interpreted as being nonplanar. Finally, the structure of a product complex is presented. In accordance with mutagenesis data, no side chains of the enzyme are implied to directly participate in proton transfer except the glutamic acid (Glu-56), which promotes formation of the 1',4'-iminopyrimidine tautomer of ThDP needed for activation.

Oxalyl-coenzyme A decarboxylase is a thiamin diphosphate-dependent enzyme that plays an important role in the catabolism of the highly toxic compound oxalate. We have determined the crystal structure of the enzyme from Oxalobacter formigenes from a hemi-hedrally twinned crystal to 1.73 angstrom resolution and characterized the steady-state kinetic behavior of the decarboxylase. The monomer of the tetrameric enzyme consists of three alpha/beta-type domains, commonly seen in this class of enzymes, and the thiamin diphosphate-binding site is located at the expected subunit-subunit interface between two of the domains with the cofactor bound in the conserved V-conformation. Although oxalyl-CoA decarboxylase is structurally homologous to acetohydroxyacid synthase, a molecule of ADP is bound in a region that is cognate to the FAD-binding site observed in acetohydroxyacid synthase and presumably fulfils a similar role in stabilizing the protein structure. This difference between the two enzymes may have physiological importance since oxalyl-CoA decarboxylation is an essential step in ATP generation in O. formigenes, and the decarboxylase activity is stimulated by exogenous ADP. Despite the significant degree of structural conservation between the two homologous enzymes and the similarity in catalytic mechanism to other thiamin diphosphate-dependent enzymes, the active site residues of oxalyl-CoA decarboxylase are unique. A suggestion for the reaction mechanism of the enzyme is presented.

Receptors for the gaseous phytohormone ethylene show sequence similarity to bacterial two-component histidine kinases. These receptors are encoded by a multigene family that can be divided into subfamilies 1 and 2. It has been previously shown that a subfamily 1 Arabidopsis thaliana ethylene receptor, ETR1, autophosphorylates in vitro on a conserved histidine residue (1). However, sequence comparisons between the five ethylene receptor family members suggest that subfamily 2 members do not have all the motifs necessary for histidine kinase activity. Further, a tobacco subfamily 2 receptor, NTHK1, autophosphorylates on serines and threonines in vitro (2). Here we show that all five Arabidopsis ethylene receptor proteins autophosphorylate in vitro. We analyzed the nature of the phosphorylated amino acids by acid/base stability and bi-dimensional thin layer electrophoresis and demonstrated that unlike ETR1 all other ethylene receptors autophosphorylate predominantly on serine residues. ERS1, the only other subfamily 1 receptor, is able to phosphorylate on both histidine and serine residues in the presence of Mn2+. However, histidine autophosphorylation is lost when ERS1 is assayed in the presence of both Mg2+ and Mn2+, suggesting that this activity may not occur in vivo. Furthermore, mutation of the histidine residue conserved in two-component systems does not abolish serine autophosphorylation, eliminating the possibility of a histidine to serine phosphotransfer. Our biochemical observations complement the recently published genetic data that histidine kinase activity is not necessary for ethylene receptor function in plants and suggest that ethylene signal transduction does not occur through a phosphorelay mechanism.

Ethylene and salicylic acid (SA) are key intermediates in a host's response to pathogens. Previously, we have shown using a tomato compatible interaction that ethylene and SA act sequentially and are essential for disease symptom production. Here, we have examined the relationship between the two signals in the Arabidopsis-Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc ) compatible interaction. Preventing SA accumulation by expression of the nahG gene reduced subsequent ethylene production and altered the development of disease symptoms, with plants showing no visible chlorosis. The ethylene insensitive lines, etr1-1 and etr2-1 , on the other hand, accumulated SA and exhibited normal but precocious symptom development. Therefore, Arabidopsis , like tomato, was found to exhibit co-operative ethylene and SA action for the production of disease symptoms. However, in Arabidopsis , SA was found to act upstream of ethylene. Jasmonic acid and indole-3-acetic acid levels were also found to increase in response to Xcc . In contrast to ethylene, accumulation of these hormones was not found to be dependent on SA action. These results indicate that the plants response to a virulent pathogen is a composite of multiple signaling pathways.